Leadership------read the requirement i send you carefully Essay

Leadership------read the requirement i send you carefully - Essay Example Various research scholars such as Johnson (2000) and Howell and Costley (2001) have stated that organizations need to develop leadership skill among employees in order to provide direction, commitment and engagement to their work effort. This shows the increasing acceptability and desirability of leadership is various facets and situations in a business. According to John Maxwell (1997), â€Å"Leadership is influence – nothing more, nothing less.†In business terms, it can be defined as the ability to forecast or evaluate policies, long term planning and motivate the followers towards successful completion of the ongoing strategy. The objective of the current research is to identify and evaluate effectiveness and desirability of leadership. For this, attributes and traits of leadership in global as well as domestic environment will be discussed. Relevant examples will be demonstrated in order to strengthen the arguments. Importance of leadership Cultures can be explicitl y different, especially in terms of attitudes, values and behaviours or groups and individuals. This kind of divergence has various implications on leadership in companies (Dorfman, 1996). Majority of previous leadership studies have concentrated only on the leaders in terms of their styles, actions and philosophies as well as appropriateness and acceptance of various styles of leadership among them. However, increasing number of studies has revealed that different leader actions and behaviours are evaluated and interpreted differently. This difference arises because of the variation in cultural environment and in the ideas of individuals in terms of an ideal leader. Some approaches are favoured in some places while others are seen as less effective. The existence of these variations is due to the fact that the importance and meaning given to leadership concept varies across regions (Alas, Tafel and Tuulik, 2007). With the expansion of firms across borders and globalisation, numerou s opportunities and challenges have come into existence for leadership. With differing values and cultural beliefs, there is a bigger necessity for acknowledging and understanding leadership styles that are culturally linked (Avolio, Walumbwa and Weber, 2009). For making a leadership strategy effective, it is important to understand cultural sensitivities and be receptive towards it. In the present research, discussion will be covering the various domestic as well as international leadership skills and traits which aid understanding of the desirability and importance of leadership in the current scenario. Leadership theories and its influence in global and local firms Business around the globe displays various leadership styles. Typically, company culture plays an important role while choosing any leadership style in order to lead businesses and organizations. The leadership style and personality of the person hiring and conducting the recruitment also influences the choice of the t ype of leaders. The leadership style that is ultimately placed in charge determines the success of the company (Schein, 1992). It is also important to note that these styles vary in terms of culture and the functionality of the business. For example, local

Crime and Hand Unemployment Rate Essay Example for Free

Crime and Hand Unemployment Rate Essay Many contemporary macro-level theories of criminal behavior and empirical tudies pf crime rates address the relationship between economic factor and crime. Relationship between economic circumstances such as wage inflation and unemployment to criminal activity is the main subject matter of this study. Wage inflation and unemployment taken as predictors of crime rates. Unemployment and inflation are two intricately linked economic concept. In economics, inflation is a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services in an economy over a period of time and it is also erosion in the purchasing power of money. And unemployment occurs when a person is able to and willing to work but urrently without work. Unemployment is usually measured using the unemployment rate which is defined as the percentage of those in the labor for who are unemployed. One causes of unemployment is inflation. Over the years there has been a number of economists trying to interpret the relationship between the concepts of inflation and unemployment. This relationship is also known as the Phillips curve. Phillips curve is an inverse relationship between rate of unemployment and rate of increase in money wages. The higher the rate of unemployment, the lower the rate of wage inflation. In other words, there is a radeoff between wage inflation and unemployment lead to a problem that individual do such a thing Just to endure it. It means that if you are unemployed you will do anything to earn and to survive for everyday living. For this, some people tend to commit crimes especially crime against property. It is a common observation of many countries that unemployment rates and all crime rates are positively associated but negatively in the wage inflation.

Compare and contrast Tennysons The Charge of the Light Brigade with Es

Compare and contrast Tennyson's The Charge of the Light Brigade with Kipling's The Last of the Light Brigade. Tennyson and Kipling both wrote the story of the Light Brigade who fought in the Crimean war, in the battle of Balaclava. This battle took place between the English and the Russians in Eastern Europe on the 25th October 1854. Lord Alfred Tennyson wrote his poem also in 1854, just after the battle had ended, and his aim was to build national pride in the hearts of the English people, and to " Honour the charge they made." Tennyson wanted to boost the moral of the English people because of the Light Brigades defeat. Tennyson wanted to change the feeling of defeat, to one of heroism, and to show that the Light Brigade were in fact brave to go up against the " Jaws of death" with only "six hundred men." Kipling on the other hand, who wrote his poem in 1891, 37 years after the battle had ended, saw how the Soldiers were living in poverty and wanted to make the public feel guilty for abandoning the soldiers when they needed support the most. Kipling wrote the poem as a response to Tennyson's poem, and refers to Tennyson as being the "Master singer." Kipling also tries to shed a reality on the battle, and how the English were loyal to the soldiers when they were need, but now that the battle is over the broken soldiers returning no longer fit the heroic image the public hold, and so their country no longer cares. In fact exposing the publics expressed support to be only shallow lip service. Tennyson wrote his poem with rigid, rhythmical, and evocative language, and tries to glamorise the Battle, and in doing so, makes the poem too fanciful. While Kipling on the other hand wrote his poem using... ...their lack of fidelity towards the soldiers. In conclusion I personally find Kipling's poem more effective. I find this because although Tennyson tries to make people feel a sense of national pride, the battle took place because of an error, and they the English people were massacred. They were brave because they knew they were committing suicide, but they went anyway. This makes them very brave, and quite foolish, but not heroes. On the other hand, Kipling is angry, and disgusted with the English people's fake loyalty because they only needed the soldier when they were fighting, now the battle is over they are just get in the way. Kipling sheds a reality on the lives of the soldiers now, but sets his poem out like a story, which is very clever. Kipling only wanted justice to be served, and for the English to see how they had treated their "Heroes." Compare and contrast Tennyson's The Charge of the Light Brigade with Es Compare and contrast Tennyson's The Charge of the Light Brigade with Kipling's The Last of the Light Brigade. Tennyson and Kipling both wrote the story of the Light Brigade who fought in the Crimean war, in the battle of Balaclava. This battle took place between the English and the Russians in Eastern Europe on the 25th October 1854. Lord Alfred Tennyson wrote his poem also in 1854, just after the battle had ended, and his aim was to build national pride in the hearts of the English people, and to " Honour the charge they made." Tennyson wanted to boost the moral of the English people because of the Light Brigades defeat. Tennyson wanted to change the feeling of defeat, to one of heroism, and to show that the Light Brigade were in fact brave to go up against the " Jaws of death" with only "six hundred men." Kipling on the other hand, who wrote his poem in 1891, 37 years after the battle had ended, saw how the Soldiers were living in poverty and wanted to make the public feel guilty for abandoning the soldiers when they needed support the most. Kipling wrote the poem as a response to Tennyson's poem, and refers to Tennyson as being the "Master singer." Kipling also tries to shed a reality on the battle, and how the English were loyal to the soldiers when they were need, but now that the battle is over the broken soldiers returning no longer fit the heroic image the public hold, and so their country no longer cares. In fact exposing the publics expressed support to be only shallow lip service. Tennyson wrote his poem with rigid, rhythmical, and evocative language, and tries to glamorise the Battle, and in doing so, makes the poem too fanciful. While Kipling on the other hand wrote his poem using... ...their lack of fidelity towards the soldiers. In conclusion I personally find Kipling's poem more effective. I find this because although Tennyson tries to make people feel a sense of national pride, the battle took place because of an error, and they the English people were massacred. They were brave because they knew they were committing suicide, but they went anyway. This makes them very brave, and quite foolish, but not heroes. On the other hand, Kipling is angry, and disgusted with the English people's fake loyalty because they only needed the soldier when they were fighting, now the battle is over they are just get in the way. Kipling sheds a reality on the lives of the soldiers now, but sets his poem out like a story, which is very clever. Kipling only wanted justice to be served, and for the English to see how they had treated their "Heroes."

Windows Server Essay -- Computers Software Essays

Windows Server There are some key differences between Windows DNS Services servers and non-Windows DNS server appliances in the areas of AD integration and security. For example, some non-Windows DNS server appliances lack complete AD integration features. Conversely, Windows DNS Service servers don't support encrypted zone transfer and update features like some non-Windows DNS server appliances do. (ref: DNS server appliances) One cant use any DNS service. Active Directory requires that the DNS support dynamic updates via RFC 2136; Windows 2000 has the advantage of being the only one that does it out of the box Those environments that already have Internet domains and DNS servers on their networks have two options.Either replace their existing DNS servers with Windows 2000 boxes or create a new internal domain to host the AD. For example, if your company is called WidgetCo, and all your internal servers are TCP/IP hosts on widgetco.com, you either need to create a sub-domain called ad.widgetco.com or you need to create something like widgetco.net, as one of my associates had to do at a large Manhattan-based international law firm. It's possible to make Unix DNS servers like BIND (Berkeley Internet Name Daemon) support Windows 2000 dynamic DNS, but it's a little tricky. Microsoft TechNet's white paper on Windows 2000 DNS provides information on getting your non-MS DNS to comply with RFC 2136. Chances are you'll need to upgrade your Unix server to the latest version of BIND, version 8.2, to make it work. Creating an entirely new domain may be less of a headache. (ref: How Microsoft went wrong with Active Directory) When Microsoft started to talk about AD and AD's DNS integration, the company said AD would operate with any DNS implementation that is compatible with the standards for dynamic DNS. DDNS is a key piece of the AD model. As the development of AD progressed, Microsoft downplayed the support for non-Win2K DNS servers. At press time, Microsoft claimed that Win2K will be compatible with UNIX's Berkeley Internet Name Domain (BIND) 8.2, but to fully utilize AD's features, you will need to use Win2K's DNS. UNIX advocates believe that NT isn't stable enough to provide the 24 X 7 service that DNS services require and that the Microsoft DNS implementations aren't sufficiently compatible with the open-source UNIX standards. Win2K and NT advo... ... Native Mode? When a domain is first installed, it is in mixed mode. The mode of operation can be changed from mixed mode to native, but this is not reversible. In native mode, Windows NT 4.0 Domain Controllers cannot participate in the domain. (ref :Step by step guide) Changing the Domain Mode Windows 2000 domains operate in one of two modes: ï‚ §Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mixed Mode. Allows domain controllers running both Windows 2000 and earlier versions of Windows NT ® Server to co-exist in the domain. In mixed mode, the domain features from previous versions of Windows NT Server are still enabled, while some Windows 2000 features are disabled. You can change to native mode after making sure all domain controllers in your domain are running Windows 2000 Server. 4.Your organisation contains four geographic locations connected via slow links. Currently all locations belong to the one Domain with a number of domain controllers all located at one site. Users are complaining of slow authentication and access to AD information. Describe 2 different options you could consider to improve the performance of the Domain. Recommend one of the options providing reasons for your choice.

Concepts in Biology: Syllabus Essay

ATTENDANCE – It is important that you make every effort to attend all of the lectures. There is a high correlation between higher test grades and attendance. Please arrive on time and avoid leaving early. You are responsible for all lecture material and the assigned material in the text that is relevant to the topics covered in class. Preview the text before coming to class and have a framework for understanding the lecture material. After lecture read the parts of the text directly relating to lecture and review your notes before studying. You should study – at least – 3 hours for each 75 minute lecture. Attendance will be  taken – unannounced – throughout the semester. CELL PHONES AND TEXTING is a distraction to you, your neighbors and to the lecturer. Please turn off your cell phone before entering room 404E. Talking on your cell phone or text messaging during class is inappropriate behavior. LAPTOP COMPUTERS are also a distraction to others in the class. Please put your laptop away during lecture. You learn best by creating your own handwritten notes. EXAMINATIONS will be machine graded. YOU WILL NEED A #2 PENCIL for filling out the ScanTron forms. Exam scores will be reported to you on eLC. If you have any questions about your test  scores, check with Ms. Davis in the Biology Office (room 403). You should have a #2 pencil with you for every class! (attendance/ exams). Memorize your 810 number – you will need it for quizzes, exams and attendance checks. ACADEMIC HONESTY: â€Å"Whatever form it takes, academic dishonesty hurts everyone: It is unfair to other students, it diminishes the reputation of the University and the value of the degree it confers, and it can result in serious disciplinary action† (Dr. Robert Kirkman, Georgia Tech). As a student of the University of Georgia, it is your responsibility to become familiar with, understand,  and abide by the standards contained in â€Å"A Culture of Honesty†. Any person appearing to be academically dishonest will be reported to the office of the Vice President for Instruction. For more information regarding academic dishonesty, please consult â€Å"A Culture of Honesty† available on the web at www. uga. edu/ovpi/academic_honesty. htm. Ignorance of these regulations is not a defense in cases of infringement. The penalties for academic dishonesty can be severe. So, JUST DON’T DO IT! GRADES: There are four (4) fifty (50) question exams and a comprehensive final exam. Each correct  exam question is 2 points (100 points/exam). Exams will have a total value of 400 points. The final exam will have 100 questions worth 200 points. Total points for the semester are 600. 20 or more extra credit points will be available through unannounced attendance checks and quizzes. Final grades are based on your total accumulated points and will be awarded as listed below: Possible Points for the Semester Exams – 4 exams x 100 points / exam 400 points Final Exam 200 points Total 600 points Grade % Total points A 93 -100 558 A- 90 – 92 540 B+ 87 – 89 522 B 83 – 86 498 B-80 – 82 480 C+ 77 – 79 462 C 73 – 76 438. C- 70 – 72 420 D 60 – 69 360 F

A Psychological Perspective on Behaviorism

A Psychological Perspective on Behaviorism Free Online Research Papers John Watson was born in 1878 and at the age of 16, went to college. He attained a Masters degree at the age of 21, from where he went on to be a school principal. His job lasted a year and then he moved on to attend school once more at the University of Chicago. There he studied philosophy under John Dewey. He was not satisfied with Deweys teachings so he sought out a different advisor and settled on functionalist psychologist James Rowland Angell and physiologist Henry Donaldson (Wikipedia, 2007). Taking what he learned from Angell and Donaldson, Watson began forming his own theories about behavior, eventually known as behaviorism. John B. Watson was soon to become known as the founder of the school of behaviorism in psychology. According to Wikipedia, Behaviorism (also called learning perspective) is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things which organisms do- including acting, thinking and feeling- can and should be regarded as behaviors. Watsons theory was considered classical behaviorism otherwise known as classical conditioning. Watsons view on behavior was that it was purely elicited. He believed that people did not experience emotions, that they were a response to some other stimuli. Watsons goal for classical behaviorism was to create a more objective science. John Watsons most famous experiment was that of little Albert. Albert was a small child who was brought to work everyday by his parent, a laboratory worker. Everyday Albert would play with the lab rats to keep himself occupied. Watson viewed Alberts activity with the rat as a stimulus. Albert was given the rat (stimuli) which elicited the play behavior. In the experiment, Albert was given the rat to play with, only now the sound of a hammer hitting a metal bar was introduced when the play behavior began. After seven presentations of the rat and the loud sound that scared Albert, a new response was noticed, crying, whenever the rat was introduced back to Albert (Watson Rayner, 1920). This fear response generalized to a new stimuli: Albert also showed fear (CR) when things (CS) similar to the fuzzy lab rat were presented (e.g., men with beards, dogs, fur coats, Santa Claus masks) (Mclntyre, 2003). John Watson was an innovator as well as the father of the school of behaviorism. His work in classical conditioning continues on today in both psycholo gy and in the zoological society. B.F. Skinner, born in 1904, attended college at the Hamilton College in New York. He received a degree in English Literature in 1926 with the intention of becoming a writer. After a year of unsuccessful writing, he chanced upon a copy of Bertrand Russells recently published book An Outline of Philosophy, in which Russell discussed the behaviorist philosophy of psychologist John B. Watson (Wikipedia, 2007). After reading the book Skinner decided to seek admission to Harvard University as a psychology student. Even as a student at Harvard, Skinner became a forward thinker. While a graduate student, he invented the operant conditioning chamber and cumulative recorder, developed the rate of response as a critical dependent variable in psychological research, and developed a powerful, inductive, data-driven method of experimental research (Wikipedia, 2007). After attaining his Ph.D. in psychology in 1931, Skinner went on to create his own school of thought known as Radical Behaviorism. Skinners theory suggests that behaviors are a result of the environment, that the behavior exhibited causes effects, whether positive or negative, that determines the probability of the behavior being reproduced. His theory also paid heavy attention to the schedule of reinforcement. The reinforcement schedule suggests that the more that the behavior is rewarded, the higher the chances that the behavior will reoccur whereas the absence of a reward decreases the probability of the behavior repeating itself. Skinn ers type of conditioning has become known as operant conditioning.It is true that both Watson and Skinner have similar outlooks on behavior however; they do have one major difference. John B. Watson argued against the use of references to mental states, and held that psychology should study behavior directly, holding private events as impossible to study scientifically. Skinner rejected this position conceding the importance of thinking, feelings and inner behavior in his analysis (Wikipedia, 2007). In other words, Skinner believed everything was a behavior, including emotions and that they too should be considered. Edward C. Tolman, born in 1886, received a Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1915 and although Tolman firmly behaviorist in his methodology, he was not a radical behaviorist like B.F. Skinner (Wikipedia, 2007). Tolman believed that learning could occur without a rein forcer (such as a food reward commonly used with animals in both classic and operant conditioning). He believed that what was learned could be used in other environments, that the behavior was not just an automatic response to the stimuli. Tolman, even with a behaviorist view on his subjects, became known for his cognitive theory of learning, he thought of learning as developing from bits of knowledge and cognitions about the environment and how organisms relate to it (a2zpsychology, 2006). Tolmans experiments also involved lab rats but Tolman studied the results of the rats running mazes without the reward. This study introduced the theory of latent learning (that learning can occur with the absence of a reward). This theory relates to humans as well. Tolman believed that humans learn without being aware of it, only when the information is needed, does the person become aware of the learning that occurred. Tolman also believed that motive drives behavior and only when there is a shift in the motive, will there be a disturbance of that behavior. Eventually, Tolmans theories led him to chart cognition. Cognitive maps are a method we use to structure and store spatial knowledge, allowing the minds eye to visualize images in order to reduce cognitive load, and enhance recall and learning of information (Wikipedia, 2007). So even though Tolman studied behavior, he came upon other mental theories. In Conclusion In comparison, John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner, and Edward C. Tolman were all behaviorists of some sort. They all believed that behavior was the underlying reason that a person functioned the way that they did. It was only in the details that they differed. Watson, a classical behaviorist, believed that there was a connection between response and environment. According to Mclntyre 2003), Prominent researchers identified with this orientation noted that an event that formally did not elicit a behavior (known as a neutral stimulus) can be made to do so by pairing (presenting) it with an unconditioned (already present) stimulus. This newly effective stimulus (and the responses to it) are said to be conditioned (trained). Watsons theories continue to be practiced in modern psychology. When a patient has difficulty with certain behaviors, many psychologists will try to reverse it with behavior modification. For example, a person with a fear of planes may go to a psychologist who will then expose the person to pictures of planes, then move to exposing the person to a virtual flight, then take the person to an airport, on the second trip to the airport, the person will stand in a terminal, the next visit it may be to sit on a plane, then eventually, to take a short flight. All these exercises would gradually desensitize the person to their fears, thus changing the behavior. Skinners theory was a bit different from Watsons in that behavior was a result of consequence. He rejected the idea of inner causes for behavior, and placed emphasis on observable behavior as opposed to the theorizing, based on unverifiable evidence, often done by others (Mclntyre, 2003). He believed that the reappearance of a behavio r was based solely on the consequence received at the time the behavior was presented. Skinner also believed that a schedule of reinforcement could help or hinder the progression of the behavior. If the behavior was rewarded every single time, the behavior would eventually extinguish. Skinner believed that behaviors still needed to be driven; that there needs to be motivation in order for the behavior to occur again. Skinners theory is still a practiced psychology. His theory however, is used more frequently among animal trainers. Animal trainers use operant conditioning to elicit responses from animals. Trainers will usually take a natural behavior and turn it into a solicited behavior. Take for example, the dolphin that jumps out of the water. In a controlled environment, that behavior would be rewarded when it is observed. Eventually the animals behavior would be paired with a hand gesture or a whistle and be rewarded with a fish. After several pairings the animal will associate the whistle with the jump and the reward, this it has been conditioned to produce a beha vior motivated by reward. Finally, Tolmans theory of behavior, learning could occur even with the absence of a reward and could happen without knowledge that learning occurred. However, one of Tolmans greatest discoveries had to do with the cognitive map. While Tolman researched behavior, he noted the thought processes that occurred within his subjects. This lead Tolman to be seen as the father of cognitive theory. His cognition map is used in modern psychology as well as a number of other professions. Watson. Skinner and Tolman were all fathers in the field of psychology. Their ideas contributed to the way that behavior is seen. Their theories have helped to create many forms of behavior modification as well as the processes that occur during thought. Although psychologys theories grow and change daily, these three psychologists theories will maintain their values in modern psychology. References: A2zpsychology (2006). Edward C. Tolman (1886-1959). Retrieved on November 23, 2007 from a2zpsychology.com/great_psychologists/edward_c_tolman.htm B.F. Skinner (2007). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved on November 24, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=B._F._Skinneroldid=173748857 Cognitive Map (2007). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved on November 24, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive_mapoldid=171599404 Edward C. Tolman (2007). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved on November 24, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edward_C._Tolmanoldid=170339259 John B. Watson. (2007) In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved on November 24, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_B._Watsonoldid=172124112 Mclntyre, T. (2003). The History of Behaviorism. Retrieved on November 23, 2007 from behavioradvisor.com/BehavoristHistory.html Watson, J., Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned Emotional Reactions. Retrieved on November 25, 2006 from http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/emotion.htm Research Papers on A Psychological Perspective on BehaviorismEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenStandardized TestingThree Concepts of PsychodynamicHip-Hop is ArtThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug Use19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraGenetic EngineeringQuebec and CanadaThe Spring and AutumnThe Hockey Game

Never offer your heart to someone who eats hearts and the Lie Essays

Never offer your heart to someone who eats hearts and the Lie Essays Never offer your heart to someone who eats hearts and the Lie Essay Never offer your heart to someone who eats hearts and the Lie Essay Essay Topic: Maya Angelou Poems The Heart Of a Woman GCSE other cultures poetry coursework compare and contrast the lie by Maya angelou and Never offer your heart to someone who eats hearts by Alice walker, paying close attention to love. We have been studying two poems by poets from other cultures. One of the poets is Maya angelou she wrote a poem called The Lie. The other poem we are studying is never offer your heart to someone who eats hearts by Alice walker. Both of these poets were alive during the civil rights movement, they were highly political and were both feminists; they also both suffered a trauma at the age of 8. Maya angelou was sexually abused by her mothers boyfriend Mr Freeman. She wrote about this in her autobiography I know why the caged birds sing. Alice walker was shot in the eye by her brother with a BB gun. Their literature had similar themes, they both wrote about gender, relationship, and kinship, in this essay Im going to be comparing and contrasting the two poems, paying close attention to love. Both of these poems are about romantic love, rather than filial love. Both the poems are written about being hurt by love, being betrayed, and about having your trust abused. The lie is written about a woman. Describing how she feels because someone has threatened to leave her. She says I hold curses in my mouth which could flood your path, sear bottomless chasms in your road she is saying that she could curse, stop him from going anywhere and hurt him too, but she wont. Never offer your heart to someone who eats hearts is about a woman advising us not to give our heart to someone who will hurt us. This poem is more wise then Walkers The Lie and is not so emotionally involved. When looking at the mood of the poems, we can see that both of the poems have a bitter sad mood, but never offer your heart to someone who eats hearts has a more frightening mood. Words like blood-chinned, sucks and shuttling are used in this poem to create this mood.

School Drop Out Rates Essay Example

School Drop Out Rates Essay Example School Drop Out Rates Essay School Drop Out Rates Essay Essay Topic: 8th Grade 9th Grade One of the greatest gifts to have been bestowed upon the children of our nation is the offering of equitable academic education.   It is by means of the education presented that we as individuals are able to develop and advance the necessary skills to lead productive and prosperous lives.   In retrospect, while many may look back thankfully at the knowledge gained throughout our school years, the same may not be said for everyone, as dropout rates continue to play a dramatic role in today’s society.  Ã‚   So what are dropout rates and how are they important to not only the individual dropout but to society as well?   Throughout the following we will answer these questions as well as analyze various methods of measurement, the validity of those measurements, minority and ethnic groups affected and potential solutions regarding this crucial issue.If â€Å"knowledge is power†, then why would one opt to negate such an extraordinary gift?   Though the idea of schoo l for certain students can undoubtedly be difficult, uncomfortable and boring at times, the consequences rendered from ridding themselves of this learning process can be far more overwhelming in the long run.   Low paying jobs, illiteracy and quality of life issues are only a few such consequences.   Furthermore, individual dropouts are not the only ones to suffer from these effects.   Communities with higher dropout rates tend to have greater percentages of residents collecting public assistance, tax revenue losses and elevated crime rates.   For instance, it is believed that dropouts are 3.5 times more likely to commit crimes.   That being said, 75% of prison inmates have not graduated from a high school program. This in turn spurns greater prison costs. Additionally, studies have shown that illegal drug use may increase among high school dropouts. (Smink, J., Drew, S. Duckenfield, M., 2006)Sadly, children may also find themselves victims in the educational push and pul l as they become prone to repeating the cycle of their parents. (Smink, J., Drew, S. Duckenfield, M., 2006)   As children, we gained much knowledge by what we saw and what we â€Å"believed† to be correct.   On that note, if parents do not take their own education, or lack thereof, seriously, then it stands to reason as to what direction their children will take?   Yet, to speak of ill effects may not be enough.  Ã‚   In order to at least comprehend the magnitude of this ongoing issue and its social ramifications, governing entities must be able to statistically evaluate information that presents itself as a means to develop solutions.   Dropout rates may serve this very purpose.Since the 1970’s dropout rates have gradually decreased, yet issues of educational abandonment remain.   The compilation of data used to study dropout rates can be a promising tool not only in determining school performance but they may also be helpful in deciphering trends.  Ã‚   By studying these rates, the development of special services devoted to the reduction and prevention of dropouts from state to state can be initiated.   It is noteworthy to mention that available services come from partnered efforts such as governmental and community agencies as well as through business.  Ã‚  Ã‚   â€Å"Students generally are considered to have dropped out when they leave school, do not transfer, do not graduate and do not return to school in the next year.†Ã‚   Methods of determining dropout rates vary, however, dependant upon the question to be answered, such as specific age groups, yearly percentages or combined grade levels over a period of time.   Some of the most noted rate structures are Longitudinal, Attrition, Annual and Status Rates.   (Creech, 2000)Longitudinal Rates are useful in determining â€Å"the percentage of 9th graders who do not graduate in five years†.   Using division (No. of dropouts / No. of original class members) this rate is easily generated and offers the student a greater period of time to obtain their high school certificate.   However, due to limited availability of necessary information like that of the actual number of school transfers, the rates may not be wholly accurate.   For this reason, Longitudinal Rates are mainly projections of yearly rates.   (Creech, 2000)Similarly, Attrition Rates are determined by 9th grade percentages but do not allow for the extra (5th) year and like Longitudinal Rates certain necessary information may be lacking to accurately arrive at true percentages.   These rates are computed by subtraction and division methods using the number of 9th grade students enrolled four years prior minus the total number of graduating students and then dividing by the 9th grade enrollment numbers.   (Creech, 2000)   While difficult to understand, the following example may serve to clarify any confusion.   If we had 450 total students enrolled in 9th grade an d four years later only 350 graduated, it is obvious we would have 100 students who would considered dropouts.   If we then take those 100 students and divide it by the 450 students initially enrolled our Attrition Rate would result in 22.2% dropout rate covering that four-year period of time.School performance percentages are the primary goal of Annual Dropout Rates which compares enrollment for the months of May and June to those of the following September.   Although overall dropout percentages from year to year are easily determined by this method, state variations on grade levels included display no uniformity.   As a result, state-to-state comparisons are not feasible.   Another disadvantage of analyzing only the number of dropouts for that given year is lower percentage rates that may not paint a complete picture of the actual problem.   For instance average rates compiled over a period of four years may not correspond to yearly rates.   Lower rates can also be at tributed to the grade level variations, as states including 7th and 8th grade students in their final percentage.   Typically, students of younger age groups do not dropout of school until much later when restrictions are lifted.   In this sense, underestimation seems inevitable. (Creech, 2000)Status Rates are accumulated through U.S Census Bureau Population Surveys and are used to determine dropout rates among specific age groups and are the most beneficial or accurate rates for comparison of state-to-state percentages.   For example, Status Rates may report the percentage of 16 through 19 year-olds who have not graduated high school and who are not enrolled.   (Creech, 2000)   According to the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES, 2001) â€Å"in October 1999, there were 3.8 million 16-24-year-olds were not enrolled in a high school program and who had not completed high school†, regardless of when they attended school.   Consequently, 11.2% of 16 throu gh 24-year-old dropouts in the United States fell within this category.  Ã‚   Through such rates the overall dropout problem existing within our population is revealed. Status Rates can greatly aid in the furtherance of developing additional education and training designed to help incite dropouts to more readily participate within the nation’s economy as well as lead more productive lives.The NCES also computes annual Event Rate Statistics.  Ã‚   These rates encompass, ages 15 through 24-year-olds in grades 10-12 who have dropped out in the year preceding the data collection and is a valuable measure as to the effectiveness of educator’s ability to keep students enrolled.   It is important to mention that with the statistical calculations for Event Rates, students are viewed as having completed a high school program whether through traditional class work or by receiving their certification via alternate means such as a GED.   It is estimated that while over the last 25 years Event Dropout Rates have fluctuated, an overall decrease has been recorded from 6.1% in 1972 to 5.0% in 1999.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Event Status Rates (1999) also determined â€Å"5 out of every 100 young adults who were enrolled in high school in October 1998 were no longer in school and had not successfully completed high school†.   Event rates are collected through Current Population Surveys (CPS).   Such surveys allow for calculations to be determined based on characteristics such as ethnicity, sex, location of residency and income level.   For instance, the NCES has compiled data in 1999 that supported the fact that students of families in the lowest 20% of household incomes had a five times higher likelihood of dropping out of school.   Which minority groups overall are more likely to dropout of school can also be determined through Event Rates.   (NCES, 2001)According to calculated percentages Hispanics make up the majority of school dropouts among minor ity and ethnic groups.   As Creech (2000) points out, statistics set forth by the NCES, determined that 38% of Hispanic students had dropped out of school in 1998, whereas, only 17% of black students were estimated to have dropped out within that specified year.   Figures such as these may be largely due to language barriers of students born abroad or living with families where English is used primarily as a second language.  Ã‚   Overall black and Hispanic students were 2-3 times more likely to drop out of school than white students.   Other social influences that may contribute to higher   drop out rates are pregnancy, behavioral problems and self-esteem issues.   In order to combat these problems, special programs for groups like teen parents and those whose first language is not English must be instituted.   (Creech, 2000)Yet, even with the mass amounts of technical information offered as to the various methods and calculations of dropout rates, we are left with th e question, are dropout rates valid as a true account of the nationwide problem?   As discussed in earlier paragraphs, accuracy is not always achieved.   For instance, most school informational systems do not have a means to track students who have transferred to other schools or who have failed.   During calculations of Longitudinal and Attrition Rates, the only information taken into account is the number of enrolled students compared to non-enrolled students over a given time period.   As a result, actual transfer students are included as dropouts when such is not the case.   While it has neither been proved nor disproved, states that have adopted the Exit Exam policies before certification can be received, may lead to a greater percentage of students failing.   This in turn will not only lower graduation rates but may increase inaccurate dropout percentages. (Greene, J. Winters, M.A., 2005)In fact, the mere defining of the term â€Å"dropout† can in itself cr eate reporting inaccuracy.   This is primarily caused by a great number of states that differ in their opinion as to who should be counted as a dropout.   Furthermore, these variances make it nearly impossible to compare the rate of dropouts between states or statistics presented in previous years.   (Creech, 2000)Status Rates have also been criticized.   Sum and Harrington (2003) believe Status Rates, as calculated by the U.S. Department of Education are â€Å"substantially biased†.   One reason may be the denominator attributed to Status Rates that does not allow for future dropouts in students 18 through 24 years of age.   The problem being, as research has shown, it is more likely these students over the age of 18 will decide to drop out of school as they are well over the average age of their peers.Another issue presented is the exclusion of those students who have left school but have acquired their GED.   While the positive aspects of obtaining a GED may be inspiring, studies have determined that the GED is not an equitable assessment of a traditional high school diploma.   Moreover, students age 18 through 24 who have been institutionalized or imprisoned are also excluded from Status Rate calculations.   (Sum, A. Harrington, P., 2003)Overall, prevention is key in the reduction of dropout rates.   Legislative enforcements like that of The Education and Economic Development Act (2005) have been enacted to improve academic achievement while focusing on career choice, work skills and graduation rates.   (Smink, J., Drew, S. Duckenfield, M., 2006)   In addition, it may prove significantly beneficial for policymakers to set in place more advanced data   systems that can better predict and detail those students who are most likely to dropout of school.   Means of intervention via education administrators must also come into play for schools that have repeated performance issues that may diminish student motivation and incr ease dropout rates.   (Achieve, Inc., 2006)In summary, while the implementation of calculating dropout rates can be beneficial tools to the researcher, they may not serve the best interest of the community or students assessed.   Without an accurate depiction of the existing problem we cannot achieve the goal of preventing and/or reducing dropout rates. Still, we must continue on through trial, error and heated debate, in hopes of a better tomorrow for our young adults.

Introduction to Communications. Major essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Introduction to Communications. Major - Essay Example At start the film industry of Canada was in great slumber and there was no orientation and direction for the establishment of the film industry in the future. All the course of direction was dependent upon the American film industry. The paper will excessively look upon the historical evolution and galvanization of Canadian feature film industry and what were the main problems that were faced by the film makers and how they managed to solve these problems in order to cope up with the emerging trends of the global film and motion arts industry (Pratley, 2003). The early problems of Canadian feature film industry were really immense because there was absolutely no infra structure and the moving showmen always had to buy the film making equipments, pictures and reelers in order to carry on their business. Most of the picture ideas, equipments and production team consultancy were taken from France, America and Britain (Hoskins et al, 1996). The expansion of the single film reelers also started at that time and the monopoly factor was started to take effect because there was no competitive environment in the Canadian film industry. Producers were not able to supply the demanded number of films and that is the sole reason behind the rental film that was the main centric attraction in the Canadian film industry. The revolutionary event took place when a moving show man names John Schuberg was single film Reeler in 1902 at Los Angeles and proposed to establish a permanent electric theatre in Canada in order to promote the performing arts and fil m industry in Canada and deplete the dependency on the American film industry. As a result the electric theatre was established in Vancouver and people were really attracted towards this new entertainment outlet. Mount Peele in eruption and the Great Train Robbery were on the pioneer films that triggered the Canadian film industry Gala at this first electric theatre. The

Theory of Justice Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Theory of Justice Analysis - Essay Example One is known as principle of liberty and the other as principle of difference. First Principle presented by Rawls The first principle of Rawls states that each and every person has equal rights to obtain all the basic necessities of life. Moreover, everyone should be allowed to practice whatever he or she wants as long as he or she stays within the established rules and regulations. According to Rawls, citizens should have basic freedom. It is the right of every citizen to vote for anyone and to run their businesses with ease. The tradition of rich people dominating the poor ones should be written off immediately. Furthermore, it is important that the citizens must have freedom of speech and should have the right to raise their voice against any sort of injustice or corruption. It has been noticed, in unfair societies, that properties of ordinary citizens are taken by the powerful citizens through unlawful means. This is something which cannot be justified whatsoever. People should h ave the liberty to own their personal properties and live in peace without the fear of anyone. Rawl also highlighted the importance of ethics within a nation. He argued that in order to maintain peace and prosperity in a nation it is essential that people are given the ‘liberty of conscience’ (Rawls, 1971). This would avoid hatred among the citizens and everyone will be able to live happily. Second Principle presented by Rawls In the second law of justice, Rawl mentioned that the citizens should be given equal opportunities to excel and prejudice should be discouraged. The selection of a person in an organization should totally be based upon merit. This will not only give the poor people an opportunity to sustain but would also help to improve the economy of the country. This will ensure that the most skilful people are selected which will in turn lead to more efficient results in the long term. Ethical Principles Beneficence Beneficence refers to the ability to acknowl edge what is good. An ethical perspective always aims to indicate the right thing to do. The principle of beneficence also resembles the principle of utility which stresses on maximization of good. Least Harm Least Harm is very much similar to beneficence, but it deals with situations where nothing favorable or positive is possible (Barton, & Karen, 1999). For such situations, the individual must choose the option that is least harmful. From the possible options left, he should go for the thing which will harm the fewest number of people. This principle aims to minimize damage for the whole society. Respect for Autonomy This principle allows people the freedom to make decisions of their lives. People should have the liberty to express their emotions in a manner they like without harming other members of the society. Justice Justice states that all the ethical theories should be based upon equality in order to judge a person. This means that all the decisions that are made should be made without any prejudice. All the decisions must be made without differentiating on the basis of color, caste, or creed. There should be a logical justification for all the decisions taken, especially when one is found guilty (Braithwaite, 1989). Ethical Theories Deontology Deontological theories are normative theories that reflect the character of a person. These theories characterize actions as right or wrong without taking into account the consequences of those actions. Deontological the

Stress, a hazard in the workplace Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Stress, a hazard in the workplace - Essay Example Recent medical research has indicated that stress can ultimately be just as harmful as smoking a pack of cigarettes each and every day. With such a high level of impact with regards to human health and the increasing level to which systemic and/or self engaged stress motivates and defines the workplace, the following analysis will engage the reader with an understanding of how stress can create an ultimate hazard with regards to a toxic workplace alongside the medical ramifications and human resources repercussions that this necessarily entails. As a means of understanding this and seeking to define the negative ramifications and positive ameliorations of stress within the workplace, from a human resources perspective, the following analysis will attempt to engage the reader with a more full and complete understanding of the many unique dynamics of this issue (Richards, 2013). It is the hope of this author that such a discussion will provide a more definitive level of understanding a nd a clearer approach to stress reduction and practices/policies that are beneficial in effecting such an end. Identification of Factors and Discussion of Approach: Firstly, it must be understood that stress impacts directly upon workplace efficiency and productivity. A number of different studies have indicated a statistical correlation between a high stress workplace and a precipitous drop in efficiency and/or productivity that is exhibited as a byproduct of this. Moreover, unlike the counterpart, direct physical injury, stress in the workplace is something of a silent killer (Spruill, 2013). Ultimately, many human resources divisions have come to realize that a high level of unnecessary stress, exhibited within the culture of a specific firm or organization, engenders a greatly increased risk of a litany of different health concerns. For entities and businesses that operate within the United Kingdom and Ireland, a culture that exhibit a high degree of unnecessary stress necessari ly will cause a tangential loss in productivity and time out of work as a result of health concerns brought on and facilitated by such a high level of stress. For those entities and organizations that operate outside United Kingdom, the employer might be required to provide medical insurance for the stakeholders; thereby not only decreasing the efficiency and productivity that the firm is able to exhibit but also losing further money as a result of the stress that is exhibited as part of the company culture. In effect, the reader should come away with the fundamental understanding that stress within an organization can drain the organization of potential, efficiency, and resources. As such, with a high level of unique cultural stress ingrained within the culture, the human resources Department of any given organization or firm has no alternative but to seek a manner through which to redefine and reengaged the stakeholders as a means of slowly seeking to affect a gradual change withi n the culture (Stress and Coping, 2013). Overview of Research: Whereas there are litanies of different studies that help to engage the reader with an understanding of the negative repercussions that stress within an organization necessarily entails, there are relatively few analyses and discussions with regards to the manner through which a human resources department might seek to change the culture that surrounds

Does TV Increase Violence among Children and Teenagers Annotated Bibliography

Does TV Increase Violence among Children and Teenagers - Annotated Bibliography Example The document suggest that media companies take responsibilities of making sure the media does not get into the wrong hands of a child who should not be viewing the media. The document uses statistics strongly to prove that violence is not related to media such as violence on Television. The statistics show that as violence in media becomes more popular, homicide rates go down. Video Games are a big factor for the way violence is portrayed in media. The video game Grand Theft Auto San Andreas is profiled in the document. The video game shows scenes of violence, sexuality, drug use and even racial comments. The document seems to argument strongly that violent media does not influence violent behavior in children and teen youth. There are mainly statistics that favor the chosen argument. The article stresses the need to protect children and teens from weapons and other violent objects. Many media sources claim to market their products to an age group that is appropriate for the game. Th e arguments presented in the document are by far favorable to the fact that violent media is not subject to children, but many can argue the fact. Â  Anonymous. "Is exposure to media violence a public-health risk?." Lancet 9619(2008):1137. eLibrary. Web. 17 Feb. 2011. This article focuses on the danger of violent images and games. Some games show constant violence. The violence shown is a harmful exposure to children and teens. Children and young teens can be traumatized by the images of killing and violence. It is obvious that the article is suggesting that there is some sort of a regulation put on the violence that is portrayed in the media. The need for a regulation is important to minimize the amount of violence young children see. The article focuses on the importance that the television and the internet can give educational material. Aside from being able to provide educational material, there are also dangerous exposures to violent images and events. The images that are able to be viewed on the internet can have devastating affects on a child. The focus on this is to explain how important it is to regulate what children and teens are able to view in the media. The exposure is not just a risk for children and teens. The general public is at risk for health issues from all of these violent images. The article is from the United Kingdom and often references the United States. This reference to the United States explains how the violence is highly publicized more than in other countries. The article is summed up by stating that there really is no way to place blame on a certain violent media. However, it is suggested that more studies need to be performed to link violent media with violent behavior. MICHAEL PAUL WILLIAMS. "DANGEROUS MESSAGES? MEDIA VIOLENCE ABOUNDS; SO DOES DEBATE ON ITS EFFECTS." Richmond Times-Dispatch. 13 Oct. 1994: A-1. eLibrary. Web. 17 Feb. 2011. The facts recognized in the document are quite alarming. Facts show that the average chi ld may witness 8,000- 100,000 murders just from watching television. For many that amount is way too much and shows that there is a large need for change. These facts do not also factor in other media such as games and the internet. The harmful effects that these images have on children can change the way the children act dramatically. The debate also expresses the type of children that are likely going to be viewing the violent media. It is stated that children

Week3 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Week3 - Assignment Example Attempt to use laps between foreign tax law and U.S to effectively duplicate tax benefits. The treasury should address this lop holes by use of existing laws and by legislation of bylaws to cub this practice. (Albrecht, Albrecht, 2008). A U.S citizen can reduce or minimize U.S. tax obligations by claiming tax credit on foreign taxes on income. This is subjected to the following condition; the maximum tax credit payable must not exceed the amount of tax that would be payable if this income tax was taxed using domestic income tax rate. Any excess tax paid to a foreign county is not claimable. For example if a U.S citizen X earns $9,000 foreign annual income and this is the only of taxable income for X. And x had paid 800 as tax on this income. His domestic tax liability will be 900 less 800 tax credit. For example if a U.S citizen X earns $9,000 foreign annual income and this is the only of taxable income for X. And x had paid 800 as tax on this income. His domestic tax liability will be 900 less 800 tax credit. However, is this tax credit is eliminated; the government will earn an additional

Does TV Increase Violence among Children and Teenagers Annotated Bibliography

Does TV Increase Violence among Children and Teenagers - Annotated Bibliography Example The document suggest that media companies take responsibilities of making sure the media does not get into the wrong hands of a child who should not be viewing the media. The document uses statistics strongly to prove that violence is not related to media such as violence on Television. The statistics show that as violence in media becomes more popular, homicide rates go down. Video Games are a big factor for the way violence is portrayed in media. The video game Grand Theft Auto San Andreas is profiled in the document. The video game shows scenes of violence, sexuality, drug use and even racial comments. The document seems to argument strongly that violent media does not influence violent behavior in children and teen youth. There are mainly statistics that favor the chosen argument. The article stresses the need to protect children and teens from weapons and other violent objects. Many media sources claim to market their products to an age group that is appropriate for the game. Th e arguments presented in the document are by far favorable to the fact that violent media is not subject to children, but many can argue the fact. Â  Anonymous. "Is exposure to media violence a public-health risk?." Lancet 9619(2008):1137. eLibrary. Web. 17 Feb. 2011. This article focuses on the danger of violent images and games. Some games show constant violence. The violence shown is a harmful exposure to children and teens. Children and young teens can be traumatized by the images of killing and violence. It is obvious that the article is suggesting that there is some sort of a regulation put on the violence that is portrayed in the media. The need for a regulation is important to minimize the amount of violence young children see. The article focuses on the importance that the television and the internet can give educational material. Aside from being able to provide educational material, there are also dangerous exposures to violent images and events. The images that are able to be viewed on the internet can have devastating affects on a child. The focus on this is to explain how important it is to regulate what children and teens are able to view in the media. The exposure is not just a risk for children and teens. The general public is at risk for health issues from all of these violent images. The article is from the United Kingdom and often references the United States. This reference to the United States explains how the violence is highly publicized more than in other countries. The article is summed up by stating that there really is no way to place blame on a certain violent media. However, it is suggested that more studies need to be performed to link violent media with violent behavior. MICHAEL PAUL WILLIAMS. "DANGEROUS MESSAGES? MEDIA VIOLENCE ABOUNDS; SO DOES DEBATE ON ITS EFFECTS." Richmond Times-Dispatch. 13 Oct. 1994: A-1. eLibrary. Web. 17 Feb. 2011. The facts recognized in the document are quite alarming. Facts show that the average chi ld may witness 8,000- 100,000 murders just from watching television. For many that amount is way too much and shows that there is a large need for change. These facts do not also factor in other media such as games and the internet. The harmful effects that these images have on children can change the way the children act dramatically. The debate also expresses the type of children that are likely going to be viewing the violent media. It is stated that children

The foundation of every state is the education of its youth Essay

The foundation of every state is the education of its youth - Essay Example the individual with a vision to excel with the ultimate goal of being instrumental in the future progress of one’s nation, education is the best alternative. The foundation of every state is the education of its youth. Traditionally, Americans have viewed education as a means of social advancement. By providing equal educational opportunity to all, schooling could serve as a progressive force for eliminating poverty and promoting economic equality. The study conducted by Alliance (2007) point out that dropouts are a drain on the economies of each state and the nation. Lower local, state, and national tax revenues are perhaps the most obvious consequence of higher dropout rates; even when dropouts are employed, they earn significantly lower wages than graduates. State and local economies suffer further when they have less-educated populaces, as they find it more difficult to attract new business investment. Simultaneously, these entities must spend more on social programs when their populations have lower educational levels. Dropouts represent a tremendous waste of human potential and productivity, and reduce the nation’s ability t o compete in an increasingly global economy. For the individual with a vision to excel with the ultimate goal of being instrumental in the future progress of one’s nation, education is the best alternative. For the society, higher educations provides lower rate of unemployment, more tax revenues, lesser reliance on governmental support. In addition, those who acquired college education were found to smoke less, are more health conscious, and are less likely to commit crimes. Education, per se, provides innumerable benefits for the individuals as well as for the society. There is a responsibility to ensure that every student who is granted the right to be educated would not only value and cherish the lessons learned; but more so, to share what they have learned in terms of making each and everyone aware of the importance that

The greatest inventions Essay Example for Free

The greatest inventions Essay Introduction to Second Language Studies (ONLINE). Hudson This course introduces students to second language studies, as represented in the MA in SLS program at the University of Hawai‘i at MÄ noa, and to the field(s) of applied linguistics more generally. This course also serves as an introduction to the kinds of work that will be expected of students as they progress through the MA in SLS program. Students will become familiar with the following: 1. The scope of second language studies/applied linguistics, including central issues and problems, key concepts and terminology, and work done by applied linguists in society 2. Professional issues and expectations for second/foreign language educators 3. The major domains of second language studies as they are addressed specifically by the UH SLS 4. A wide variety of research approaches employed by applied linguists The course will be online. There will be extensive online discussion group activity. SLS Course Descriptions Fall 2014 600- ­Ã¢â‚¬  through 700- ­Ã¢â‚¬ level SLS 610 (1). Teaching Second Languages. Hudson This course provides a survey of current theory, research and practice in the major components of second and foreign language pedagogy and teaching programs. These components include needs and means analysis, syllabus and curriculum design, materials writing, methodology and pedagogy, skills and skills integration, student assessment, and program evaluation. Consideration will also be given to the changing social, economic, and political roles of language teaching and the profession in the world today. Both theoretical and practical dimensions of classroom teaching will be treated. By the end of the course, the students will have an understanding of the following: 1. Current theory, research and practice in second/foreign language teaching and teacher training 2. The socio-cultural, psychological and linguistic factors that have an impact on language teaching 3. Issues involved in teaching and integrating the different skill areas as and approaches to curriculum design and language teaching SLS 614 (1). Second Language Writing. Gilliland The course aims to provide insights into theories of teaching writing, with particular emphasis on the experiences of student writers composing in a second language. Consideration of various approaches to the teaching of writing in second and foreign languages is included as well as consideration of response to student writing. Students will: †¢ Identify current and historical theories of teaching SL writing. †¢ Discuss and critique approaches to teaching SL writing. †¢ Describe and analyze contexts for teaching SL writing in US and internationally. †¢ Assess the instructional needs of a given writing class and/or student. †¢ Evaluate and respond to student writing. †¢ Plan appropriate and effective syllabi, units, and lessons in SL writing courses. Required text: Ferris Hedgcock (2013). Teaching L2 Composition (3rd edition). Routledge. SLS 618 (1). Language and Learning Technologies. Zheng What is language? How do we understand language and language learning in the light of learning technologies? How do we make sense, make meaning and realize values when technologies are involved in the learning environment. Learning technologies, ranging from vernacular use of Skype, to sophisticated virtual world technologies, and to ubiquitous mobile devices, bring us new challenges and opportunities for communication and social networking, as well as learning teaching. What are the roles of learning technologies in learning, instruction and communication? Do they function as an input to aid learning, such as acquisition of lexicogrammer? Do they function as tools to help with problem solving, such as looking up a new word while reading an article? Do they function as a media to make distance communication and interaction possible? Do they function as objects that have potential to change the way we live so that our communication (language) is becoming inherently different? We will explore these questions as central themes of the course, so that we can gain a deeper understanding and be tuned to affordances of technology in the most broad sense. Explore dialogical perspectives of language and its implications for sharing, coconstruction, co-authoring and co-creation of identity and meaning in technology supported learning environments. Investigate the affordances of technologies as indicated by members of the  class (through dynamic needs analysis) for language learning and teaching. Design and conduct studies of a specific technology that you are interested in. A range of research questions are encouraged by using quantitative methods, ethnography, discourse analysis, conversation analysis and multimodal analysis. Develop a mini curriculum that has major components of technology integration. Develop materials using the Web as a major resource for your target learners. SLS 650 (1). Second Language Acquisition. Ziegler This course is designed to provide a review of current theory and research in child and adult second language acquisition. In addition, it will review relevant research in first language acquisition and explore relationships between theory and practice in the second and foreign language learning classroom. Various theoretical perspectives and issues are addressed, including cognitive-interactionist, emergentist, social, and psycholinguistic approaches, and principal areas of research such as age effects, cognition, development of learner language, and individual differences will be discussed. We will also examine the available  quantitative and qualitative research methods and how they might be used in second language (L2) research. Suggested reading: Ortega, L. (2009). Understanding second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. This course covers basic concepts and issues in sociolinguistics with a focus on multilingual language learning and teaching. The initial course readings (Davis, 2012a, 2012b) provide an overview of the theoretical foundations and diverse research methods of sociolinguistics, including the work of sociologist Goffman (presentation of self in everyday life); sociolinguists Sacks, Schegloff, and Kasper (conversation analysis); sociolinguist Gumperz (interactional sociolinguistics), anthropologist Hymes (ethnography of communication); language and education anthropologists Cazden, Philips, Heath, Erikson, Geertz, and Anzaldua (ethnography of communities and schools); and critical anthropologists Hornberger, Davis, Valdà ©s, Zentella, and McCarty (language policies and practices). Subsequent course readings and the final project then focus on the most recent trends in sociolinguistics that include: multilingualism/super diversity; interdisciplinarity, fluidity, and multiplicity in langu age use, identity, and learning (translanguaging, multiple identities); neoliberalism/ideological analyses; public and counter public discourses;  and engaged language policy, practices, and ethnography. The final course project assignment involves designing and presenting a proposal for either research or instruction that draws on current sociolinguistic theories and language learning practices. SLS 673 (1). Applied Psycholinguistics and Second Language Acquisition. Grà ¼ter This course provides an introduction to the psychological processes involved in language behavior, with a particular focus on those relevant to speaking and understanding a non-native language. Areas covered include speech perception and accent, lexical access in bilinguals, structural and discourse processing by native and non-native speakers, the role of working memory, neurological correlates of (non)native language processing, and language disorders and bilingualism. Experimental methods used in psycholinguistic research on second language acquisition will be introduced and discussed. SLS 675 (1). Second Language Qualitative Research. Kasper The course will introduce students to the principles and practices of qualitative research and their application to research problems in the domains of social institutions, multilingualism, and learning and development, including the development of language and professional competencies. The course pursues two aims: (1) to develop students’ ability to critically appraise reports of qualitative (L2) research and (2) to prepare students to conduct a qualitative study on an applied linguistic topic of their choice, or to further develop a study that is already under way. In order to meet both of these goals, particular emphasis will be given to the articulation of theory and methodology, i.e., the coherent transformation of theory into method. Students will get first-hand experience with practices of observation and interviewing, visual analysis, document analysis, and multimedia analysis. Course requirements will include reading and discussion of methodological texts, reviews of reports on qualitative studies, and practical activities. SLS 680P (1): Philosophy of Teaching. Crookes Participants will explore philosophical positions underlying S/FL teaching. We will address philosophical systems and procedures (including critical, moral and ethical thinking) in the contexts of S/FL teaching, and in respect to the decisions teachers are faced with daily, as well as long-term, as they shape their careers and their positions in society. Since all of the ideas about S/FL teaching and their philosophical dimensions have historical contexts, a historical perspective will be emphasized in the initial sessions. The concept of a philosophy of teaching can be set in practical terms because a philosophy of teaching statement is often called for in employment actions, such as job applications, contract renewals, and job interviews. It also falls into the area of professional development and personal growth, since it assists with that reflection without which efforts at a consciously constructed professional practice are not possible. SLS 680R (1). Narrative Analysis. Higgins This course introduces students to narrative analysis as an analytical framework for the exploration of research questions in sociolinguistics and applied linguistics. Most centrally, narrative analysis is used to explore questions of identity by examining how speakers construct their social worlds in and through telling stories. Narratives are also useful for examining ideologies on any number of topics. Because people tell narratives in their everyday interactions with others, researchers can also examine the role of stories in conversation and in various forms of institutional talk, including classrooms, courtrooms, clinics, and workplaces. This course will provide students with the foundation for analyzing narrative data by focusing on both ‘big stories,’ or, narratives which relate to speakers’ life histories, as well as ‘small stories,’ or narratives which take place in everyday settings. As the focus of the class is on the analysis of narrative s, students will be expected to contribute narrative data in the form of data workshops in class and to write a 20-page term paper on data they have collected. A final presentation will also be required. Required text: De Fina, Anna Georgakopoulou, Alexandra (2012). Analyzing narrative: Discourse and sociolinguistic perspectives. Cambridge University Press. Additional readings will be in the form of journal articles and book chapters, available on Laulima or through UH library. SLS 680R (2). Classroom Action Research. Gilliland This course is a companion to the summer SLS 690 Teaching Practicum in Ubon Ratchathani, Thailand. All students must have participated in the practicum during Summer 2014. Required text: Burns (2010) Doing Action Research in English Language Teaching: A Guide for Practitioners. Routledge. SLS 730 (1). Seminar in SL Pedagogy: Literature in the L2 Classroom. Day This seminar explores the use of literature in the second and foreign (L2) classroom. The primary goal is to help you develop a systematic and principled approach to using literature in your teaching. In addition to a focus on the major theoretical and research issues, the seminar explores how a literature component might be integrated into the L2 curriculum. Assignments provide opportunities to use and evaluate a variety of tasks and activities designed to incorporate literature into the L2 classroom. You will develop your own classroom materials and explore how those materials might be utilized in ways relevant to your own situations. The learning outcomes include being able to discuss the concerns and issues involved in using literature in L2 classrooms and to develop, adapt, and evaluate various literature genres and activities for the L2 classroom. SLS 750 (1). Ecological and Sociocultural Approaches to Second Language Learning. Zheng This seminar is designed to explore second language acquisition and language learning from perspectives that classical SLA does not usually take into consideration, namely ecological, sociocultural approaches. Topics regarding both epistemological and ontological orientations will be organized into the following modules: †¢ Learners: Are they truly individual beings cognizing or processing learning only in the brain, or are they only social beings who learn through socialization and interaction? Or are they ecological and dialogical beings who appropriate biological substrate, sociocultural values, semiotic resources for sense making? †¢ Environments/contexts: All research paradigms and pedagogical treatments consider the relationship between the learner and environments. Are environments considered as containers that function in the background? Are learners and environments reciprocally co-defining and co-changing? How are learners and environments connected? What are the roles of teacher, technology, community and personal biography in language development? †¢ Unit of analysis: Unit of analysis is the major entity that defines the ontological nature of your research and ultimately determines the values of finding in pedagogical practices and phenomenological discoveries. We will consider and compare a wide array of approaches on unit of analysis from different research paradigms, such as individuals, groups, tasks, t-units, turns, agent-environment coupling, communicative projects, etc. †¢ Methods and Analytical tools: technological prevalence and advancement pushes the envelope of human limitations on data management, such as data collection, analysis and report. We will examine readily available tools that can advance conducting research from ecological and sociocultural approaches. †¢ Pedagogical Implications: Synthesizing the first 4 topics, this module explores what an ecologically and socioculturally oriented classroom looks like. This includes such topics as action-based learning, place-based learning, pedagogy as multimodal design, studentteacher relationships that are beyond the segregation between teacher-centered and learner-centered dichotomies. This seminar is dedicated to the legacy of Leo van Lier’s work on The Ecology and Semiotics of Language Learning. Required texts:  van Lier, L., 2004. The Ecology and Semiotics of Language Learning: A Sociocultural Perspective. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Norwell, MA. Additional journal articles, book chapters/sections and website will be available in Laulima and course website. SLS 750 (2). Child L2 Acquisition. Schwartz The purpose of this seminar is to examine research on child L2 acquisition, with particular emphasis on syntax and morphology. Research into child L2 acquisition has the potential to inform our understanding of adult L2 acquisition as well as L1 acquisition. We will examine some of the very few studies that directly compare L2 (and L1) children and L2 adults in the acquisition of particular grammatical phenomena. Students will become familiar with the theoretical issues at stake as well as the empirical base of recent work. We start off by focusing on the critical period issue, or more neutrally, on age-dependent effects of L2 acquisition in terms of ultimate attainment. We next consider the issue of endstate (ultimate attainment) vs. development for L2 children and L2 adults. The third area is research on child L2 acquisition itself, where exposure to the nonnative language starts approximately between the ages of 4 and 7; this is likely to be the crucial age range, because it is after the native grammar has been (more or less) established and yet falls clearly within what is  traditionally considered to be the critical period for language acquisition. Of special interest here are three issues: (1) whether child L2 acquisition replicates L1 acquisition; (2) whether child L2 acquisition exhibits features of adult L2 acquisition, in particular L1 influence; and (3) whether there are characteristic differences between L2 child and L2 adult acquisition, especially with respect to different domains, specifically syntax vs. inflectional morphology. The course will be a combination of lectures and student presentations of readings. While familiarity with introductory syntax is highly desirable, time will be taken in class to ensure understanding of the necessa ry linguistic background. SLS 760 (1). Intercultural Communication. Higgins Within a sociocultural linguistics framework, this seminar focuses on how the constructs of ‘culture’ and ‘cultural difference’ are enacted by speakers of more than one language in conversational interactions. The course will pay equal attention to the ways that cultural difference is associated with miscommunication and the ways that culture can be used as a resource in interactions among multilingual speakers. The course will emphasize the perspective that culture and cultural difference are social constructs that cannot be presumed, but rather are the result of active processes in interaction among conversational participants, processes which sometimes  point to the relevance of cultural models, interpretive schemas, discourses, and ideologies. Students will examine seminal work in the field, starting with cross-cultural communication studies, followed by an examination of the developments in the field that have led to the reconceptualization of this ar ea of inquiry. Following a seminar format, students will regularly lead discussions of readings and present data for analysis in workshop format during the semester. A final term paper of 20-25 pages (with deadlines for proposal and first draft) will also be required for the course. SLS 760 (2). Language Ideologies, Policies and Practices: An Engaged Ethnographic Approach. Davis While language policy (LP) scholars increasingly explore policies as shaped by global sociopolitical and economic ideologies, LP and applied linguistics scholars are increasingly calling for on-the-ground language practices that resist, negotiate, and appropriate inequitable policies (Davis, 2009, 2014; Johnson, 2013; Wyman, McCarty, Nicholas, 2014). This course takes an  engaged ethnographic approach that is designed to draw teachers, students, community members, and others into dialogic exploration of language education policy as an interactive process; covert ideologies and policies as potentially marginalizing; and plurilingual policies as desirable, effective and possible (Davis, 2014; Phyak Bui, 2014). While challenging dominant neoliberal ideologies (Gegeo Watson-Gegeo, 2001; Tollefson, 2013; Warner, 2002), the course explores ways in which to support practices that meet local language, education, economic and human welfare needs. Thus, the course takes an interdisciplina ry approach in exploring societal and schooling issues such as multilingualism, translanguaging, and identities while considering the agency of individuals and communities as the epicenter of language policy reform (Davis, 2014; Pennycook, 2013). The course draws on the above theoretical perspectives in exploring engaged dialogic and participatory efforts to promote equitable education in both developed and developing countries. Through readings, course activities and discussion course participants will develop both ideological analytical and engaged ethnographic abilities that can guide current and future work in schools, communities, and with education administration. Course participants will further gain insight into engaged ethnographic research methods through designing research proposal and/or documenting engaged efforts with teachers, parents and/or concerned others in promoting equitable language education policy and practices. These efforts can focus on research and/or documentation in one or more of the following areas: 1) Conducting ideological analyses with parents, educators, and concerned others towards raising awareness of harmful neoliberal commodification and standardization language education policies; 2) Exploring and planning resistance and alternatives to marginalizing and ineffective national, state, and regional language ideologies and policies; 3) Developing community and school based language and education policies that are locally relevant, educationally forward-looking, and serve to provide models for wider change and 4) Developing relevant and engaging instructional practices through supporting teachers and building on local knowledge for schooling that is studentcentered and engaging. In sum, this course actively involves course participants in drawing on current theories and utilizing engaged  ethnographic methods towards promoting equitable policies and practices.

The Marxist critique of capitalism

The Marxist critique of capitalism Marx critique of capitalism has been, and in certain respects, remains important in the development of global economies. Marxs critique of capitalism stems from his view that capitalism is a wonderful innovation, but immorally exploitative. Therefore the Marxist critique of capitalism aims to justify this point and provide an alternate form of economic and political system. Yet does Marx succeed in providing an effective critique of capitalism? Or has the collapse of the Soviet Union and mass global capitalism bring with it the end of official, public discourse about Marxism? Or has the recent financial recession rejuvenated the Marxist critique of capitalism? These questions require answers in order to reach a conclusion on whether the Marxist critique is accurate and still applicable to capitalism. Marx critique of capitalism has not only had an impact on the discipline of philosophy and economics, but also an impact upon the globalised world. Marx was a character influenced by the prominent writers of his time, most notable Fredrich Hegel. Marx began his academic writings with a critique of Hegels theory of the Spirit and continued to criticise Hegels idea that the state is above civil society. In 1884 Marx began to apply his philosophy to the analysis of economic life. Marx wrote in the Paris Manuscripts Religion occurs only in the realm of the consciousness, but economy alienation is that of real life; it transcendences therefore covers both aspects(Hughes 2003 :). Marx was critical of economic doctrines of his day, arguing that they confused a particular historical situation for the natural, universal condition of humanity. Marx argued that political economist theories failed as they assumed the actual fact of capitalist production, rather than seeing it as one particular a nd historically specific form of production (Hughes 2003 :). Marx idea of capitalism is a historically specific mode of production, in which capital is the means of production. For Marx this production cannot be defined by technology, but in the way production is owned or controlled, and by the social relationships between each individual characterised by the process of this production. This suggests that social and historical development can be explained in means of economic and class factors. In the eyes of Marx economic factors are based on the idea of exchange, and that exchange in capitalism takes form in the exchange of property. Private property is an essential feature of capitalism. Marx critiques the capitalist notion that the notion of Private Property is the rational system for Exchange. Marx stresses that private property is only maintained in capitalist societies by an elaborate system of laws supported by the power of the state (Hughes 2003 :). For free market capitalist such as Adam Smith it is the acquisition of private property that motivates people to produce wealth, but this acquisition will bring about the breakdown of genuine social relationships (Hughes 2003 :). Why does Marx believe this? The answer Marx gives is a logical one; ones persons ownership of an object denies its benefits to another creating conflict and producing fierce competition over resources*. Marx explains that in the case when property is actually the product of anothers work, it becomes human alienation. In such a scenario under capitalism, labour is effectively reduced to a mere commodity and work becomes depersonalised*. In this view workers efforts enrich and empower those who oppress them, the capitalist, alienated from their product and processes of their labour and ultimately, from themselves as creative and social beings* (Heywood). Marx believes that humans are unique in that we have the capacity to control the environment and create wealth from it. Examples of humans efforts exemplify this point; humans have built houses instead of sheltering in caves, constructed dams to produce hydro electricity. These are to name a few examples were humans have changed the environment to benefit general welfare. Activity of work has a special significance essential to human beings, yet under the conditions of alienated labour this is denied. The capitalist argument that private property motivates is rendered by Marx as simply a consequence of alienated labour. Alienated Labour is important in understanding Marx critique of capitalism, yet more central to Marx critique of capitalism is class struggle. Marx views the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles (Marx and Engels 1985:79). In a capitalist society division arises from the existence of private property. There is division between the bourgeoisie, the owners of the means of production, and the proletariat, a class of labourers who live only so long as they find workthese labourers, who must sell themselves piecemeal, are a commodity (Marx and Engels 1985:83). In previous and contemporary societies this division is evident. Institutes such as universities reinforce these divisions, for example Oxbridge caters to those more bourgeoisie and polytechnics cater to those proletariat in society. The bourgeoisie is the ruling class, not only by economic power through the ownership of wealth, but by also wielding political power. The bourgeoisie, since establi shment of modern industry, has established exclusive political sway in form of a modern representative state. The state is a committee for managing the common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie (Marx and Engels 1985:83). For Marx the relationship between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat is one of irreconcilable conflict, in that the proletariat is necessarily and systematically exploited under capitalism*. Marx believed that labour is the only real source of wealth. Capital itself; land factories, ports, railroads, etc.; represents simply stored labour, since it was, at some point, constructed by wage employees (website objectivistcenter.org).Thus in search of profit the capitalist extract this surplus value by paying the workers less than the value of their labour*. As a result unstabliluty defines capitalism, as the proletariat cannot be permanently reconciled to exploitation and oppression (Heywood 2007:56). Marx believed that the oppression inbuilt into capitalism consequently means that it will be its own grave digger. Marx believed that a serious crisis of overproduction will bring forth a proletarian revolution. The revolution against bourgeoisie goes through stages of development. Firstly, class struggle against the Bourgeoisie is not targeted against Bourgeois conditions of product but against the individual who exploits the individual member of the Proletariat; or it may take the form of attack on the means of production, for example smashing machinery**notes. But with the development of industry the proletariat not only increases in number; it becomes concentrated in greater masses, its strength grows, and it feels that strength more (Marx and Engels 1985:89). This allows the proletariat to form a class, an identity, a collective consciousness. The ever-expanding union of workers forms one character and this mobilizes into a national struggle; the proletariat against the bourgeoisie. Marx proclaimed that this proletarian revolution was inevitable, beginning with the seizure of the means of production, the dictatorship of the proletariat in order to contain a counter-revolution and then the eventual peaceful transition to socialism. Marx argued that eventually class antagonism would fade and a fully communist society would come into existence and the proletarian state would wither away. A communist society would eradicate all private property; all property would be owned in common by all. It would be a classless society. Commodity production would be replaced by one of production for use geared to the satisfaction of genuine human needs* heywood. With this Marx argues, The prehistory of man would come to an end, allowing human beings for th e first time to realise their full potential (Heywood 2007:57). Marx writings have developed major ideas which have come to be regarded as the foundations of Marxist thought. Nonetheless Marx political and economic critique on capitalism has come under scrutiny from a variety of academics. A problem with Marx critique is the adoption of the labour theory of value. Marx refusal to accept anything other than the theory that humans are the only source that can add value to raw materials leads to complications. If only humans can add value then what of automated machines that produce value or at the minimum cooperate with humans to create value. If we were not to diverge from Marx argument, it must be concluded that no value is added by such machines. Therefore machines that produce uranium enriched nuclear power providing electricity for millions would have added no value. To conclude this would be illogical as such machines do add value, as they benefit human wellbeing. Further, sheer physical force and labour are of no use if not directed. Amanda Bissell argues that though it is true that labor is needed to construct factories, but throwing a 100 directionless men into a lot with some steel girders, tools and their muscle and with no plan, no blueprint, or leadership will not yield anything that contributes meaningful to production (website as of before). Capitalist provides such direction. Marx inability to understand private property as indispensible to human freedom further weakens his critique of capitalism. Marx critique of capitalism would place the ownership or the control of capital in the hands of those whom hold political power*. Marx solution to capitalism would thus combine economic and political power, the two major sources of power. Louis Kelsos in his Critique of Karl MarxsDas Kapital highlights that If the factory owners of the nineteenth century, having political influence but not unlimited political power, were in a position to exploit the workers, the bureaucrats of the twentieth century in a socialised state, possessing both unlimited economic and political through ownership of the instruments of production, are infinitely better equipped to exploit workers and other non-bureaucrats (Website one with three critiques). The exploitation of a socialised state is illustrated by the Soviet Union. The crumbling of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the swift collapse of the Soviet Union that followed was viewed as a global triumph for free market capitalism. The rise of Neo-liberal economic policies in the 1970s changed the international economic, social and political landscapes. Neo-liberal economic policies have earmarked the monetary union in Europe and the continued growth of Japan and the emergence of South Korea and Singapore as economic forces. Both these factors lead academics to cite that Marxism is dead, that Marxism is no longer a viable theory, or politics for the present age (whither Marxism). Francis Fukuyama in his acclaimed End of History argued that Marxism failed in that it sought to promote in extreme form of social equality at the expense of liberty, by eliminating natural inequalities through the reward not of talent but of need, and through the attempt to abolish division of labor (Fukuyam 1992:273). For Fukuyama free market capitalism provides the perfect trade -off point between liberty and equality. Fukuyama argument is a compelling argument. Over the latter half of the twentieth century capitalism has changed significantly from the capitalism that Marx critiqued in the ninetieth century. Marx in his critique of capitalism makes no reference to the States economic, or its social and political role. Trade unions emerged in the twentieth century as an important and recognised party in the wage bargain. In the ninetieth century trade unions did have not have such an importance on the political and economic factors in the capitalist society. Similarly under capitalist systems universal suffrage has been achieved, allowing all influence on matters of the economy, even at some small level. Universal suffrage has allowed for the rise of social democratic parties across Europe, whose policies have sought to address the redistributive inequalities experienced in capitalism. Welfare systems, social housing and social unemployment relief are to mention a few of the redistributive measures taken by socialist democratic parties. Neo-Marxists express an alternative argument regarding the collapse of Soviet Union and its effects on Marxism. The conditions for the proletarian revolution to occur and for communism to be established, were different from those economic and social conditions of early twentieth century Russia. Marx believed that the revolution would occur in an industrial nation like Britain, a nation with both national and global industry. Russia was not an industrialised nation to this extent in the early twentieth century, and therefore a Marxian communist society was never established under the Soviet Union. Kellner points out, Marxism has been traditionally a theory of class, one which defines the concept of class based on different power groupings. The fact that the Soviet Union collapsed can ultimately be traced to the corruption and bureaucratisation of it ruling class. It never overcame the problem of alienated labour (Magnus and Cullenberg 1995:4). Zhang Longxi in a similar vein views comm unism under the Soviet Union as dead, but Marxism as a theory is very much alive (Magnus and Cullenberg 1995:5). After examining the Marxist critique of capitalism it can be concluded that the critique of capitalism was a critique of ninetieth century capitalism, which can no longer apply to contemporary capitalism. Capitalism for the most part of the twentieth century has evolved to meet the needs of popular demand. Class antagonism is not the same as Marx described, there is no longer a fierce class struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, class de-alignment has taken hold of Western capitalist societies. Neo liberalism has become dominant throughout the globe. It is no longer just Western Capitalist societies that have adapted the neo-liberal free market approach to economics but also developing countries. Despite inequality still arising within free market capitalism, opportunity is also created. Free trade allows for growth and increases a nations prosperity. The recent global financial crash has propelled Marxs critique back to the forefront of political debate. Yet capitalis m still prevails, but what occur from its failings are new developments to these failings created by capitalism. Obama healthcare package in the United States, a traditional strict free market capitalist society, is evident to this fact. Marx critique of capitalism thus underestimated the ability for capitalism to restructure itself. Bibliography Ryner, J. (2000) Capitalist Restructuring, Globalisation and the Third Way: Lessons from the Sweedish model, London; Routledge Magun, B, Cullenberg, S. (1995) Whither Marxism? Global Crises in International Perspective, London; Routledge Heywood, A. (2007) Foundations in Politics, Basingstoke; Palgrave Macmillan Marx, K, Engels, F. (1985) The Communist Manifesto; with an Introduction by A.J.P Taylor, London; Penguin Fukuyama, F (1992) The End of History and The Last Man, Harmondsworth; Penguin Hughes, J. (2003) Understanding Classical Sociology, London; Sage Publications Websites http://www.cesj.org/thirdway/almostcapitalist.htm http://objectivistcenter.org/cth1298-Marxs_Surplus_Value_Theory.aspx The Marxist Critique Of Capitalism The Marxist Critique Of Capitalism Marx critique of capitalism has been, and in certain respects, remains important in the development of global economies. Marxs theory stems from his view that capitalism is a wonderful innovation, but immorally exploitative. Therefore the Marxist critique of capitalism aims to justify this point and provide an alternate form of economic and political system. Yet does Marx succeed in providing an effective critique of capitalism? Or has the collapse of the Soviet Union and mass global capitalism bring with it the end of official, public discourse about Marxism? Or has the recent financial recession rejuvenated the Marxist critique of capitalism? These questions require answers in order to reach a conclusion on whether the Marxist critique is accurate and still applicable to capitalism. Marx critique of capitalism has not only had an impact on the discipline of philosophy and economics, but also an impact upon the globalised world. Marx was a character influenced by the prominent writers of his time, most notable Fredrich Hegel. Marx began his academic writings with a critique of Hegels theory of the Spirit and continued to criticise Hegels idea that the state is above civil society. In 1884 Marx began to apply his philosophy to the analysis of economic life. Marx wrote in the Paris Manuscripts â€Å"Religion occurs only in the realm of the consciousness, but economy alienation is that of real life; it transcendences therefore covers both aspects† (Hughes 2003 :). Marx was critical of economic doctrines of his day, arguing that they confused a particular historical situation for the natural, universal condition of humanity. Marx argued that political economist theories failed as they â€Å"assumed the actual fact of capitalist production, rather than seeing it as one particular and historically specific form of production† (Hughes 2003 :). Marx idea of capitalism is a historically specific mode of production, in which capital is the means of production. For Marx this production cannot be defined by technology, but in the way production is owned or controlled, and by the social relationships between each individual characterised by the process of this production. This suggests that social and historical development can be explained in means of economic and class factors. In the eyes of Marx economic factors are based on the idea of exchange, and that exchange in capitalism takes form in the exchange of property. Private property is an essential feature of capitalism. Marx critiques the capitalist notion that the notion of ‘Private Property is the rational system for Exchange. Marx stresses that â€Å"private property is only maintained in capitalist societies by an elaborate system of laws supported by the power of the state† (Hughes 2003 :). For free market capitalist such as Adam Smith it is the acquisition of private property that motivates people to produce wealth, but this acquisition will bring about the â€Å"breakdown of genuine social relationships† (Hughes 2003 :). Why does Marx believe this? The answer Marx gives is a logical one; ones persons ownership of an object denies its benefits to another creating conflict and producing fierce competition over resources. Marx explains that in the case when property is actually the product of anothers work, it becomes human alienation. In such a scenario under capitalism, labour is effectively reduced to a mere commodity and work becomes depersonalised. In this view workers efforts enrich and empower those who oppress them, the capitalist, alienated from their product and processes of their labour and ultimately, from themselves as â€Å"creative and social beings† (Heywood 2007:56). Marx believes that humans are unique in that we have the capacity to control the environment and create wealth from it. Examples of humans efforts exemplify this point; humans have built houses instead of sheltering in caves, constructed dams to produce hydro electricity. These are to name a few examples were humans have changed the environment to benefit general welfare. Activity of work has a special significance essential to human beings, yet under the conditions of alienated labour this is denied. The capitalist argument that private property motivates is rendered by Marx as simply a consequence of alienated labour. Alienated Labour is important in understanding Marx critique of capitalism, yet more central to Marx critique of capitalism is class struggle. Marx views â€Å"the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles† (Marx and Engels 1985:79). In a capitalist society division arises from the existence of private property. There is division between the bourgeoisie, the owners of the means of production, and the proletariat, â€Å"a class of labourers who live only so long as they find workthese labourers, who must sell themselves piecemeal, are a commodity† (Marx and Engels 1985:83). In previous and contemporary societies this division is evident. Institutes such as universities reinforce these divisions, for example Oxbridge caters to those more ‘bourgeoisie and polytechnics cater to those ‘proletariat in society. The bourgeoisie is the ruling class, not only by economic power through the ownership of wealth, but by also wielding polit ical power. The bourgeoisie, since establishment of modern industry, has established exclusive political sway in form of a modern representative state. The state is â€Å"a committee for managing the common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie† (Marx and Engels 1985:83). For Marx the relationship between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat is one of irreconcilable conflict, in that the proletariat is necessarily and systematically exploited under capitalism. Marx believed that labour is the only real source of wealth. Capital itself; â€Å"land factories, ports, railroads, etc.; represents simply stored labour, since it was, at some point, constructed by wage employees† (http://objectivistcenter.org/cth1298-Marxs_Surplus_Value_Theory.aspx 24/03/2010).Thus in search of profit the capitalist extract this surplus value by paying the workers less than the value of their labour. As a result instability defines capitalism, as the â€Å"proletariat cannot be permanently reconciled to exploitation and oppression† (Heywood 2007:56). Marx believed that the oppression inbuilt into capitalism consequently means that it will be its own grave digger. Marx believed that a serious crisis of overproduction will bring forth a proletarian revolution. The revolution against bourgeoisie goes through stages of development. Firstly, class struggle against the Bourgeoisie is not targeted against Bourgeois conditions of product but against the individual who exploits the individual member of the Proletariat; or it may take the form of attack on the means of production, for example smashing machinery. But with the development of industry the â€Å"proletariat not only increases in number; it becomes concentrated in greater masses, its strength grows, and it feels that strength more† (Marx and Engels 1985:89). This allows the proletariat to form a class, an identity, a collective consciousness. The ever-expanding union of workers forms one character and this mobilizes into a national struggle; the proletariat against the bourgeoisie. Marx proclaimed that this proletarian revolution was inevitable, beginning with the seizure of the means of production, the dictatorship of the proletariat in order to contain a counter-revolution and then the eventual peaceful transition to socialism. Marx argued that eventually class antagonism would fade and a fully communist society would come into existence and the proletarian state would wither away. A communist society would eradicate all private property; all property would be owned in common by all. It would be a classless society. Commodity production would be replaced by one of production for use geared to the satisfaction of genuine human needs. With this Marx argues, â€Å"The prehistory of man would come to an end, allowing human beings for the first time to realise their full potential† (Heywood 2007:57). Marx writings have developed major ideas which have come to be regarded as the foundations of Marxist thought. Nonetheless Marx political and economic critique on capitalism has come under scrutiny from a variety of academics. A problem with Marx critique is the adoption of the labour theory of value. Marx refusal to accept anything other than the theory that humans are the only source that can add value to raw materials leads to complications. If only humans can add value then what of automated machines that produce value or at the minimum cooperate with humans to create value. If we were not to diverge from Marx argument, it must be concluded that no value is added by such machines. Therefore machines that produce uranium enriched nuclear power providing electricity for millions would have added no value. To conclude this would be illogical as such machines do add value, as they benefit human wellbeing. Further, sheer physical force and labour are of no use if not directed. Amanda Bissell argues that â€Å"though it is true that labor is needed to construct factories, but throwing a 100 directionless men into a lot with some steel girders, tools and their muscle and with no plan, no blueprint, or leadership will not yield anything that contributes meaningful to production† (http://objectivistcenter.org/cth1298-Marxs_Surplus_Value_Theory.aspx 24/03/2010). Capitalist provides such direction. Marx inability to understand private property as indispensible to human freedom further weakens his critique of capitalism. Marx critique of capitalism would place the ownership or the control of capital in the hands of those whom hold political power. Marx solution to capitalism would thus combine economic and political power, the two major sources of power. Louis Kelsos in his Critique of Karl MarxsDas Kapital highlights that â€Å"If the factory owners of the nineteenth century, having political influence but not unlimited political power, were in a position to exploit the workers, the bureaucrats of the twentieth century in a socialised state, possessing both unlimited economic and political through ownership of the instruments of production, are infinitely better equipped to exploit workers and other non-bureaucrats† (http://www.cesj.org/thirdway/almostcapitalist.htm 24/03/2010). The exploitation of a socialised state is illustrated by the Soviet Union. The crumbling of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the swift collapse of the Soviet Union that followed was viewed as a global triumph for free market capitalism. The rise of Neo-liberal economic policies in the 1970s changed the international economic, social and political landscapes. Neo-liberal economic policies have earmarked the monetary union in Europe and the continued growth of Japan and the emergence of South Korea and Singapore as economic forces. Both these factors lead academics to cite that â€Å"Marxism is dead, that Marxism is no longer a viable theory, or politics for the present age† (whither Marxism). Francis Fukuyama in his acclaimed ‘End of History argued that â€Å"Marxism failed in that it sought to promote in extreme form of social equality at the expense of liberty, by eliminating natural inequalities through the reward not of talent but of need, and through the attempt to abolish division of labor† (Fukuyam 1992:273). For Fukuyama free market ca pitalism provides the perfect trade-off point between liberty and equality. Fukuyama argument is a compelling argument. Over the latter half of the twentieth century capitalism has changed significantly from the capitalism that Marx critiqued in the ninetieth century. Marx in his critique of capitalism makes no reference to the States economic, or its social and political role. Trade unions emerged in the twentieth century as an important and recognised party in the wage bargain. In the ninetieth century trade unions did have not have such an importance on the political and economic factors in the capitalist society. Similarly under capitalist systems universal suffrage has been achieved, allowing all influence on matters of the economy, even at some small level. Universal suffrage has allowed for the rise of social democratic parties across Europe, whose policies have sought to address the redistributive inequalities experienced in capitalism. Welfare systems, social housing and social unemployment relief are to mention a few of the redistributive measures taken by socialist democratic parties. Neo-Marxists express an alternative argument regarding the collapse of Soviet Union and its effects on Marxism. The conditions for the proletarian revolution to occur and for communism to be established, were different from those economic and social conditions of early twentieth century Russia. Marx believed that the revolution would occur in an industrial nation like Britain, a nation with both national and global industry. Russia was not an industrialised nation to this extent in the early twentieth century, and therefore a Marxian communist society was never established under the Soviet Union. Kellner points out, â€Å"Marxism has been traditionally a theory of class, one which defines the concept of class based on different power groupings. The fact that the Soviet Union collapsed can ultimately be traced to the corruption and bureaucratisation of it ruling class. It never overcame the problem of alienated labour† (Magnus and Cullenberg 1995:4). Zhang Longxi in a similar v ein views communism under the Soviet Union as dead, but Marxism as a theory is â€Å"very much alive† (Magnus and Cullenberg 1995:5). After examining the Marxist critique of capitalism it can be concluded that the critique of capitalism was a critique of ninetieth century capitalism, which can no longer apply to contemporary capitalism. Capitalism for the most part of the twentieth century has evolved to meet the needs of popular demand. Class antagonism is not the same as Marx described, there is no longer a fierce class struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, class de-alignment has taken hold of Western capitalist societies. Neo liberalism has become dominant throughout the globe. It is no longer just Western Capitalist societies that have adapted the neo-liberal free market approach to economics but also developing countries. Despite inequality still arising within free market capitalism, opportunity is also created. Free trade allows for growth and increases a nations prosperity. The recent global financial crash has propelled Marxs critique back to the forefront of political debate. Yet capitalis m still prevails, but what occur from its failings are new developments to remedy the failings created by capitalism. Obama healthcare package in the United States, a traditional strict free market capitalist society, is evident to this fact. Marx critique of capitalism thus underestimated the ability for capitalism to restructure itself. Bibliography Desai, M ‘Marxs Political Economy, in T.Bottomore (eds) (1981) Modern Interpretations of Marx,Oxford; Basil Blackwell Fukuyama, F (1992) The End of History and The Last Man,Harmondsworth; Penguin Heywood, A. (2007) Foundations in Politics,Basingstoke; Palgrave Macmillan Hughes, J. (2003) Understanding Classical Sociology,London; Sage Publications Maun, B, Cullenberg, S. (1995) Whither Marxism? Global Crises in International Perspective,London; Routledge Marx, K, Engels, F. (1985) The Communist Manifesto; with an Introduction by A.J.P Taylor,London; Penguin Ryner, J. (2000) Capitalist Restructuring, Globalisation and the Third Way: Lessons from the Sweedish model,London; Routledge Websites Centre for Economic and Social Justice (2010) ‘Louis Kelsos Critique of Karl MarxsDas Kapital http://www.cesj.org/thirdway/almostcapitalist.htm Objectivist Centre (2010) ‘Marx Surplus Theory of Value http://objectivistcenter.org/cth1298-Marxs_Surplus_Value_Theory.aspx